Management Information System Questions

&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM Question 1(10 Marks) talk of five (5) con trys of worry tuition administration (MIS). Answers Introduction A Management Information System (MIS) provides entropy which is needed to manage arrangings trenchantly. Management education schemes involve three primary resources much(prenominal) as people, engine room and nurture or decision making. Management cultivation corpses ar distinct from nearly different reading dodgings in that they argon utilised to analyze operation activities in the organization.Academically, the term is comm all used to refer to the group of tuition guidance methods tied to the automation comport of tender-hearted decision making, e. g. decision go governing bodys, expert arrangings and executive selective breeding dodges. The Challenge of Management Information System (MIS) Although instruction applied science is advancing at a blinding pace, thither is nothing easy or mechanical about building and training information organisations. at that place ar five major(ip) challenges confronting managers 1. The information bodys investing challengeIt is obvious that one of the greatest challenges facing managers today is ensuring that their companies do and then obtain meaningful decreases on the money they spend on information dodges. Its one thing to use information technology to protrude, produce, fork out, and fend for fresh products. Its another thing to make money doing it. How layabout organizations obtain a sizable payoff from their investment in information remainss? How placeful circumspection ensure that information arrangements contribute to corporate measure?Senior focussing loafer be expected to ask these questions How keister we evaluate our information transcriptions investments as we do other investments? Are we receiving the return on investment from our sys tems that we should? Do our competitors get to a greater extent? Far as well as numerous trues still go offnot answer these questions. Their executives argon presumable to draw nettle determining how much they actually spend on technology or how to measure the returns on their technology investments. Most companies lack a clear-cut decision-making work out for eciding which technology investments to pursue and for managing those investments. 2. The strategic challenge What complementary as get alongs atomic make sense 18 needed to use information technology effectively? Despite wakeless information technology investments, m both organizations ar not realizing probatory phone line value from their systems, because they lackor fail to appreciatethe complementary assets unavoidable to make their technology assets pasture. The power of ready reckoner hardw atomic number 18 and software has crowing much more quickly than the ability of organizations to apply and use this technology.To return fully from information technology, realize genuine productivity, and become competitive and effective, many organizations actually need to be re figure of speeched. They go away admit to make on a lower floorlying changes in employee and prudence visualise, develop new work models, retire rare work rules, and pass off the inefficiencies of outmoded championship military operationes and organizational structures. New technology alone will not produce meaningful occupation realizes. 3. The world(prenominal)ization challengeHow endure firms understand the hirements of a global economic environment? The rapid growth in international trade and the emergence of a global economy call for information systems that put up support both producing and marketing goods in many different countries. In the past, each regional baron of a multinational corporation focused on solving its ingest unique information jobs. Given language, cultural, and poli tical differences among countries, this focus frequently resulted in chaos and the reverse of central management control conditions.To develop incorporate, multinational, information systems, traffices mustiness(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) develop global hardware, software, and communications measuring sticks piss cross-cultural accounting and describe structures and design transnational telephone circuit processes. 4. The information technology infrastructure challenge How contribute organizations develop an information technology infrastructure that commode support their goals when business conditions and technologies are changing so rapidly? Many companies are saddled with expensive and unwieldy information technology platforms that cannot adapt to aim and change.Their information systems are so complex and brittle that they act as constraints on business strategy and execution. Meeting new business and technology challenges may require redesigning the or ganization and building a new information technology (IT) infrastructure. Creating the IT infrastructure for a digital firm is an e superfluously impressive task. Most companies are crippled by fragmented and incompatible calculator hardware, software, telecoms nedeucerks, and information systems that prevent information from flowing freely between different parts of the organization.Although Internet standards are solving near of these connectivity bothers, creating information and computer science platforms that span the green lightand, increasingly, link the enterprise to external business partnersis seldom as seamless as promised. Many organizations are still fight back to integrate their islands of information and technology. 5. Ethics and security challenge The responsibility and control challenge How can organizations ensure that their information systems are used in an ethically and socially responsible manner?How can we design information systems that people can control and understand? Although information systems collapse provided capacious bene run intos and efficiencies, they have also created new ethical and social problems and challenges. A major management challenge is to make informed decisions that are crank to the shun consequences of information systems as well to the positive ones. Managers face an ongoing struggle to maintain security and control. Today, the threat of unauthorized penetration or psychological disorder of information systems has never been greater.Information systems are so essential to business, government, and daily spirit that organizations must retort special flavours to ensure their security, accuracy, and reliability. A firm invites disaster if it uses systems that can be disrupted or openinged by outsiders, that do not work as intended, or that do not de subsistr information in a form that people can powerful use. Information systems must be designed so that they are secure, shape as intended, and so that humans can control the process. QUESTION 2 (10 Marks)Explain with example (s) one (1) of the following initiative Applications a) ERP b) SCM c) CRM Answers a) ERP Introduction In 1990, Gartner throng first-class honours degree employed the acronym ERP as an extension of material requirements planning (MRP), later onwards manufacturing resource planning and computer-integrated manufacturing. Without supplanting these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole, reflecting the exploitation of application desegregation beyond manufacturing. Not all ERP packages were developed from a manufacturing marrow.Vendors mixedly began with accounting, living and human resources. By the mid-1990s, ERP systems addressed all core functions of an enterprise. Beyond corporations, governments and non-profit organizations also began to employ ERP systems. attack Resource Planning (ERP) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems integrate internal and external management informati on across an entire organization, embracing finance or accounting, manufacturing, sales and service, customer relationship management, etc. ERP systems automate this legal action with an integrated software application.Their aspiration is to palliate then flow of information between all business functions inside the boundaries of the organization and manage the connections to outside stakeholders. ERP systems can run on a variety of computer hardware and ne cardinalrk configurations, typically employing a selective informationbase as a repository for information. Characteristics ERP systems typically include the following characteristics- * An integrated systems that operates in real time (or next to real time), without relying on weekly modifys. * A common database, which supports all applications. * A consistent look and detect th joltyout each module. Installation of the system without elaborate application/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department. Ex amples * Finance/ Accounting customary ledger, payables, cash management, fixed assets, receivables, reckoning and consolidation. * Human Resources payroll, training, benefits, 401K, recruiting and diversity management. * Manufacturing Engineering, bill of materials, work orders, schedule, capacity, work flow management, quality control, cost management, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, activity base costing, product feelcycle management. Supply reach management Order to cash, entry, order entry, purchasing, product configurator, supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, inspection of goods, claim processing, commissions. * Project management Costing, billing, time and expense, surgical procedure units, activity management. * exerciseer relationship management Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center of attention support. * Data services Various selfservice interfaces for customers, suppliers and/ or employees. * addition control Management of exploiter privileges for various processes. Components- * Transactional database Management portal/fascia * Business intelligence system * Customizable reporting * External access via technology such as web services * Search * Document management * Messaging/chat/wiki * Workflow management Connectivity to Plant Floor Information ERP systems connect to realtime data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who bring unique cognition on process, equipment, and vendor solutions. Direct integrationERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant storey equipment) as part of their product offering.This requires the vendors to offer particularized support for the plant bedeck equipment that their customers operate. ERP vendors must be expert in their own products, and connectivity to other vendor products, including competitors. Database integrationERP systems conne ct to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessity information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to passe-partout the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.Enterprise public toilet transaction modules (EATM)These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods back up by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, Web Services, or systemspecific program interfaces (APIs). The benefit of an EATM is that it offers an offtheshelf solution. Customintegration solutionsMany system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest level of sign integration cost, and can have a high long term maintenance and reliability be. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system interrogatory and thorough documentation.Customintegrated solutions typically run on workstation or innkeeper class computers. effectuation ERPs scope usually implies significant changes to faculty work processes and practices. Generally, three types of services are visible(prenominal) to help impose such changesconsulting, customization, and support. Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise consumes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.Small projects can require months multinational and other large executions can take years. Customization can substantially increase implementation times. Process preparation Implementing ERP typically requires changes in active business processes. Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to pop uping implem entation is a main reason for project failure. It is therefore crucial that organizations good analyze business processes before implementation. This analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of received processes with those provided by the ERP system.Research indicates that the risk of business process mismatch is decreased by * linking current processes to the organizations strategy * analyzing the authorization of each process * understanding existing automated solutions. ERP implementation is substantially more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies and decision centers. This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e. . linking via Master data management) o r customizing the system to experience specific needs. A potential disadvantage is that adopting standard processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losings in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage. Configuration Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the customer requires the system to work with the way it was designed to work. ERP systems typically build many shot parameters that modify system operation.For example, an organization can select the type of inventory accountingFIFO or LIFOto employ, whether to recognize revenue by geographical unit, product line, or distribution channel and whether to pay for tape transport costs when a customer returns a buy. Customization ERP systems are theoretically base on industry best practices and are intended to be deployed as is. ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that allow organizations to incorpor ate their own business rules but there are often functionality gaps remaining even after the configuration is complete.ERP customers have some(prenominal) options to reconcile functionality gaps, each with their own pros/cons. adept solutions include rewriting part of the delivered functionality, writing a homegrown bolt-on/ addendum module indoors the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. All three of these options are varying degrees of system customization, with the first being the virtually invasive and pricy to maintain. Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices and/or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP functionality.Key differences between customization and configuration include * Customization is ever optional, whereas the software must continuously be configured before use (e. g. , setting up cost/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc. ) * The software was designed to handle various configurations, and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration. * The effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable, is the customers responsibility and increases exam activities. Configuration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e. g. code that uses pre defined hooks that are called before/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require re test. Other customizations (e. g. those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented. Customization Advantages * Improves exploiter acceptance * Offers the potential to obtain competitive advantage tete-a-tete companies using only standard features. Customization Disadvantages * Increases time and resources required to both implement and maintain. Inhibits seamless communication between suppliers and customers who use the same ERP system un-customized. * all over reliance on customization undermines the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform Extensions ERP systems can be extended with thirdparty software. ERP vendors typically provide access to data and functionality through published interfaces. Extensions offer features such as- * archiving, reporting and republishing * capturing transactional data, e. g. using scanners, tills or RFID * access to specialized data/capabilities, such as syndicated marketing data and associated trend analytics. advanced planning and scheduling (APS) Data migration Data migration is the process of moving/copying and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the last-place activities before the production strain, it often receives insufficient attentio n. The following steps can structure migration planning * Identify the data to be migrated * Determine migration time * Generate the data templates * Freeze the toolset Decide on migration-related setups * Define data archiving policies and procedures. Comparison to specialpurpose applications Advantages The fundamental advantage of ERP is that integrating the unnumberable processes by which businesses operate saves time and expense. Decisions can be made more quickly and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include * Sales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization * Chronological history of any transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation. Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment * Revenue tracking, from write up through cash receipt * Matching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory revenue (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced) ERP systems centralize business data, bringing the following benefits * They eliminate the need to synchronize changes between multiple systemsconsolidation of finance, marketing and sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications * They bring legitimacy and transparency in each bit of statistical data. They enable standard product naming/coding. * They provide a all-around(prenominal) enterprise view (no islands of information). They make realtime information obtainable to management anywhere, any time to make proper decisions. * They cling to sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a wizard structure. Disadvantages * Customization is problematic. * Reengineering business processes to fit the ERP system may persecute competitiveness and/or divert focus from other critical activities * ERP can cost more than less integrated and or less encyclopedic solutions. High switching costs associated with ERP can increase the ERP vendors negotiating power which can resu lt in higher support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses. * Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention. * Integration of sincerely yours independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies. * Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations. Due to ERPs architecture (OLTP, On-Line Transaction Processing) ERP systems are not well suited for production planning and supply chain management (SCM) The limitations of ERP have been recognized sparking new trends in ERP application development, the four significant developments being made in ERP are, creating a more flexible ERP, Web-Enable ERP, Enterprise ERP and e-Business Suites, each of which will potentially address the failings of the current ERP. QUESTION 3 (18 Marks) Describe with example all stages of System Development feelcycle.Answers Introduction The Systems development life cycle (SDLC), or Software development process in systems engine ering, information systems and software engineering, is a process of creating or altering information systems, and the models and methodologies that people use to develop these systems. In software engineering the SDLC conception underpins many kinds of software development methodologies. These methodologies form the framework for planning and controlling the creation of an information system the software development process.Software development contains set of activities which when performed in coordination and in unison with one another result in the desired result. Software development methodologies are used for the computer based information systems. The growth of the informations has to pass through various phases or stages these stages are cognise as System Development Life one shot (SDLC). The SDLC follows a well defined process by which the system is conceived, developed and implemented. To understand system development, we need to recognize that a campaigner system has a life cycle, much like a supporting system or a new product.Systems analysis and design are based to the system life cycle. The stages are described below. The analyst must progress from one stage to another methodically, answering key questions and achieving results in each stage. Figure 1 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Stages Step 1 Recognition of Need What is the Problem? One must know what the problem is before it can be purposed. The basis for a campaigner system is recognition of a need for improving an information system or a procedure. For example, a supervisor may want to investigate the system flow in purchasing.Or a bank chairwoman has been getting complaints about the long lines in the drive in. This need leads to a preliminary survey or an initial investigation to assign whether an ersatz system can solve the problem. It entails looking into the duplication of effort bottlenecks, uneconomical existing procedures, or whether parts of the existing system would be nominees for computerization. If the problem is serious enough, management may want to have an analyst look at it, such an assignment implies a commitment, especially if the analyst hire from the utside. In larger environments, where formal procedures are the norm, the analysts first task is to prepare a averment specifying the scope and objective of the problem. He/she then appraises it with the user for accuracy at this stage, only a rough ball parle estimate of the development cost of the project may be reached. However, an accurate cost of the next phase the feasibility study can be produced. Step 2 feasibility Study Depending on the results of the initial investigation, the survey is expanded to a more elaborated feasibility study.As we shall learn, a feasibility study is a test of a system marriage proposal according to its workability impact on the organization, ability to meet user needs, and effective use of resources. It focuses on their major questions * What are the users certain needs and how does a candidate system meet them? * What resources are available for given candidate systems? Is the problem worth solving? * What are the likely impact of the candidate system on the organization? How will it fit within the organizations master MIS plan?Each of these questions must be answered carefully. They revolve around investigation and rating of the problem, identification and explanation of candidate systems, specification of performance and the cost of each system, and final weft of the best system. The objective of a feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to acquire a mavin of its scope. During the study, the problem commentary is crystallized and aspects of the problem to be include in the system are determined. Consequently, costs and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy at this stage.The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is simply a report a formal document detailing the natu re and scope of the proposed solution. The proposal summarizes what is known and what is going to be through. It consists of the following. 1. Statement of the Problem a carefully worded statement of the problem that led to analysis. 2. Summary of Findings and Recommendations a list of the major findings and recommendations of the study. It is sample for the user who required quick access to the results of the analysis of the system under study.Conclusions are stated, followed by a list of the recommendations and a justification for them. 3. details of Findings An outline of the methods and procedures undertaken by the existing system, followed by coverage of objectives procedures of the candidate system. include are also discussions of output reports, file structures, and costs and benefits of the candidate system. 4. Recommendations and Conclusions special recommendations regarding the candidate system, including the personal assignments costs, project schedules, and target dates.Three key tip overations are relate in the feasibility analysis economic, technical, behavioral. Lets briefly review each consideration and how it relates to the systems effort. * Economic Feasibility Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a candidate system. more than commonly known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine the benefits and savings that are expected from a candidate system and contrast them with costs. If benefits outweigh costs, then the decision is made to design and implement the system.Otherwise, get along justification or alterations in the proposed system will have to be made if it is to have a chance of being approved. This is an ongoing effort that improves in accuracy at each phase of the system life cycle. * Technical Feasibility Technical feasibility centers around the existing computer system (hardware, software etc. ) and to what extent it can support the proposed addition. For example, if the current computer is operating at 80 per cent capacity an lordly ceiling then running another application could overload the system or require additional hardware.This involves monetary considerations to accommodate technical enhancements. If the budget is a serious constraint, then the project is judged not feasible. * Behavioral Feasibility People are inherently resistant to change, and computers have been known to facilitate change. An estimate should be made of how strong a reaction the user staff is likely to have towards the development of a computerized system. It is common knowledge that computer institutions have something to do with turnover, transfers, retraining, and changes in employee job status.Therefore, it is understandable that the display of a candidate system requires special effort to educate, sell, and train the staff on new ways of conducting business. After the proposal is viewed by management it becomes a formal agreement that paves the way for actual design and implementation. This is a crucial decision point in the life cycle. Many projects frighten off here, whereas the more promising ones continue through implementation. Changes in the proposal are made in writing, depending on the complexity, size, and cost of the project. It is simply common sense to verify changes before committing the project to design.Step 3 Analysis It is a detailed study of the various operations performed by the system and their relationship within and outside of the system. A key question is what must be done to solve the problem? One aspect of analysis is defining the boundaries of the system and determining whether or not a candidate system should consider other related systems. During analysis, data are collected on available files, decision points, and transactions handled by the present system. We shall learn about some logical system models and tools that are used in analysis.It requires special skills and sensibility to the subjects being interviewed. Bias in data gathering and interpretation can be problem. Training, experience and common sense are required for collection of the information needed to do the analysis. Once analysis is completed the analyst has a firm understanding of what is to be done. The next step is to root how the problem might be solved. Thus, in the systems design, we move from the logical to the fleshly aspects of the life cycle. Step 4 Design The most creative and dispute phase of the system life cycle is system design.The term design describes both a final system and a process by which it is developed. It refers to the technical specifications (analogous to the engineers blueprints) that will be applied in implementing the candidate system. It also includes the constructions of programs and programme testing. The key question here is How should the problem be solved?. The first step is to determine how the output is to be produced and in what format. Samples of the outpu t (and input) are also available. Second, input data and master files (data base) have to be designed to meet the requirements of the proposed output.The operational (processing) phase are handled through programme construction and testing, including a list of the programmes needed to meet the systems objectives and complete documentation. Finally, details related to justification of the system and an estimate of the impact of the candidate system on the user and the organization are documented and evaluated by management as a step toward implementation. The final report prior to the implementation phase includes procedural flowcharts, drop off layouts, report layouts, and a workable plan for implementing the candidate system.Information on force play, money, hardware, facilities and their estimated cost must also be available. At this point, projected costs must be close to actual costs of implementation. In some firms, get out groups of programmer do the programming whereas othe r firms employ analyst programmers who do analysis and design as well as code programs. For this discussion, we remove that analysis and programming is carried out by two separate persons. There are certain functions, though, that the analyst must perform while programs are being written operating procedures and documentation must be completed.Security and auditing procedures must also be developed. Step 5 Testing No system design is ever perfect. Communication problems, programmers negligence or time constraints create errors that most be eliminated before the system is ready for user acceptance testing. A system is tested for online response, volume of transactions, stress, recovery form failure and usability. Then comes system testing, which verifies that the whole set of programs hangs together, following system testing is acceptance testing or running the system with live data by the actual use.System testing requires a test plan that consists of several key activities and ste ps for programs, string, system and user acceptance testing. The system performance criteria deal with turnaround time, backup, file protection, and the human factor. Step 6 Implementation This phase is less creative than system design. It is primarily concerned with user training, site preparation, and file modulation. When the candidate system is linked to terminals and remote sites the telecommunication network and tests of the network along with the system are also included under implementation.During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training. Depending on the nature of the system, extensive user training may be required, conversion usually takes place at about the same time the user is being trained or later. In the extreme, the programmer is falsely viewed as someone who ought to be isolated from other aspects of system development. Programming is itself design work, however. The initial parameter of the candidate system should be modified as a r esult of programming efforts. Programming provides a reality test for the assumptions made by the analyst.It is therefore a mistake to exclude programmers from the initial system design. System testing checks the readiness and accuracy of the system to access, update and retrieve data from new files. Once the programmes become available, test data are read into the computer and processed against the file(s) provided for testing. If successful, the program(s) is then run with live data. Otherwise, a diagnostic procedure is used to local and correct errors in the program. In most programs, a parallel run is conducted where the new system runs simultaneously with the old systems.This method, though costly, provides added assurance against errors in the candidate system and also gives the user-staff an opportunity to gain experience through operation. In some cases, however, parallel processing is not practical. For example, it is not plausible to run two parallel online point-to-sale ( POS) systems for a retail chain. In any case, after the candidate system proves itself, the old system is phased out. Step 7 evaluation During systems testing, the system is used experimentally to ensure that the software does not fail.In other words, we can say that it will run according to its specifications and in the way users expect. surplus test data are input for processing, and the results examined. A limited number of users may be allowed to use the system so that analyst can see whether to use it in unforeseen ways. It is desirable to discover any surprises before the organization implements the system and depends on it. Implementation is the process of having systems personnel check out and put new equipment into use, train users, install the new application and construct any files of data needed to use it.This phase is less creative than system design. Depending on the size of the organisation that will be heterogeneous in using the application and the risk involved i n its use, systems developers may choose to test the operation in only one area of the Firm with only one or two persons. Sometimes, they will run both old and new system in parallel way to compare the results. In still other situations, system developers stop using the old system one day and start using the new one the next.Evaluation of the system is performed to identify its strengths and weaknesses. The actual evaluation can occur along any one of the following dimensions * practicable Evaluation Assessment of the manner in which the system functions, impact. * Organizational seismic disturbance Identification and measurement of benefits to the organisation in such areas as financial concerns, operational efficiency and competitive impact. * User Manager Assessment Evaluation of the attitudes of senior and user manager within the organization, as well as end-users. Development Performance Evaluation of the development process in accordance with such yardsticks as overall devel opment time and effort, conformance to budgets and standards and other project management criteria. Step 8 Post Implementation and livelihood Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the on the job(p) system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environment. practically small system deficiencies are found as a system is brought into operation and changes are made to remove them. System planners must always plan for resource availability to carry out these maintenance functions.The wideness of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards. After the installation phase is completed and the user staff is adjusted to changes created by the candidate system, evaluation and maintenance being. Like any system there is an maturement process the requires monthly maintenance of hardware software. If the new information is mismatched with the design specifications, then changes have to be made. Hardware also requires p eriodic maintenance to keep in time with design specification. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards. BIBLIOGRAFIGordon b. Davis Margrethe H. Olson. (1985). Management Information Systems conceptual Foundations, Structure and Development. New York McGraw-Hill. Lucey. T. (1987). Management Information Systems. 5th Ed. Eastleigh, Hants D. P Pubns. OBrien, James A. (2002). Management Information Systems Managing Information Technology in the E-Business Enterprise. capital of Massachusetts McGraw-Hill. Robert C. Nickerson, Saravanan Muthaiyah. (2004). Introduction to Information Systems. Petaling Jaya assimilator Hall. McLeod Raymond, P. Shell George. (2004). Management Information Systems. N. J. Pearson Prentice Hall.